Garibaldi
in 1866Giuseppe Garibaldi (July 4, 1807 – June 2, 1882) was an
Italian patriot and soldier of the Risorgimento. He personally led many
of the military campaigns that brought about the formation of an unified
Italy. He was called the "Hero of the Two Worlds", in tribute
to his military expeditions in South America and Europe.
He was born
in 1807 in the former Italian city of Nizza, renamed Nice in 1792 under
French control. Garibaldi's family was involved in coastal trade, and
he was reared to a life on the sea. He was certified in 1832 as a merchant
marine captain.
A very special
day for Garibaldi came on a visit to Taganrog, Russia, in April 1833,
where he moored for ten days with the schooner Clorinda and a shipment
of oranges. In a seaport inn, he met Giovanni Battista Cuneo from Oneglia,
a political immigrant from Italy and member of the secret movement “Young
Italy” (La Giovine Italia). Garibaldi joined the society, and
took an oath of dedicating his life to struggle for liberation of his
homeland from Austrian dominance.
In Geneva
in November 1833, Garibaldi met Giuseppe Mazzini, an impassioned proponent
of Italian unification as a liberal republic through political and social
reforms. He joined the Young Italy movement and the Carbonari revolutionary
association . Garibaldi participated in a failed republican uprising
in Piedmont in February 1834. Sentenced to death in Genoa, he escaped
to France later that year, then later traveled to Tunisia.
After Tunisia,
Garibaldi left for Brazil and took up the cause of independence of the
Republic of Rio Grande do Sul (the former Brazilian province of São
Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul), joining the gaucho rebels known as the
farrapos (tatters) against the newly independent Brazilian nation (see
War of Tatters). During this war he encountered Anita Ribeiro when the
Tatter Army tried to proclaim another Republic in the Brazillian province
of Santa Catarina. In October 1839, Anita left her husband, Manuel Duarte
Aguiar, to join Garibaldi on his ship, the Rio Pardo. A month later,
she fought at her lover's side at the battles of Imbituba and Laguna.
In 1841, the
couple moved to Montevideo, Uruguay, where Garibaldi worked as a trader
and schoolmaster, and married there the following year. They had four
children, Minotti (born 1840), Rosita (born 1843), Teresita (born 1845),
and Ricciotti (born 1847). Anita was carrying their fifth child when
she died (1849). A skilled horsewoman, she is said to have taught Giuseppe
about the gaucho culture of southern Brazil and Uruguay.
In 1842, Garibaldi
took command of the Uruguayan fleet and raised an "Italian Legion"
for that country's war (Guerra Grande) with the Argentine dictator,
Juan Manuel de Rosas. In 1847 Garibaldi defended Montevideo against
Argentinean forces led by former Uruguayan dictator Manuel Oribe.
Garibaldi
returned to Italy in the tumult of the revolutions of 1848, and offered
his services to Charles Albert of Sardinia. The monarch displayed some
liberal inclinations, but treated Garibaldi with coolness and distrust.
Meanwhile, a Roman Republic had been proclaimed in the Papal States,
but a French force sent by Napoleon III threatened to topple it. At
Mazzini's urging, Garibaldi took up the command of the defence of Rome.
His wife, Anita, fought with him. Despite their effort, the city fell
on June 30, 1849, and Garibaldi was forced to flee to the north, hunted
by Austrian troops. Anita died near Ravenna during the retreat.
Garibaldi
eventually managed to escape abroad. In 1850 he became a resident of
New York, where he met Antonio Meucci. For some time he worked in a
manufactory of candles on Staten Island. Afterwards he made several
voyages to the Pacific, during which he visited Andean revolutionary
heroine Manuela Sáenz in Peru.
Garibaldi
returned to Italy in 1854. In 1859, the Austro-Sardinian War broke out
through the machinations of the Sardinian government. Garibaldi was
appointed major general, and formed a volunteer unit named the Hunters
of the Alps. With his volunteers, he won victories over the Austrians
at Varese, Como, and other places. One outcome of the war, though, left
Garibaldi very displeased. His home city of Nice was surrendered to
the French, in return for crucial military assistance.
At the beginning
of April 1860, uprisings in Messina and Palermo in the absolutist Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an opportunity. He gathered
about a thousand volunteers (called i Mille, or, as popularly known,
the "Red Shirts") in two ships, and landed at Marsala, on
the westernmost point of Sicily, on May 11.
Swelling the
ranks of his army with scattered bands of local rebels, Garibaldi defeated
a 3,000-strong Bourbon French garrison at Calatafimi on May 13. The
next day, he declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor
Emmanuel II of Italy. He advanced then to Palermo, the capital of the
island, and launched a siege on May 27. He had the support of many of
the inhabitants, who rose up against the garrison, but before the city
could be taken, reinforcements arrived and bombarded the city nearly
to ruins. At this time, a British admiral intervened and facilitated
an armistice, by which the Neapolitan royal troops and warships surrendered
the city and departed.
Garibaldi
had won a signal victory. He gained worldwide renown and the adulation
of Italians. Faith in his prowess was so strong that doubt, confusion,
and dismay seized even the Neapolitan court. Six weeks later, he marched
against Messina in the east of the island. By the end of July, only
the citadel resisted him.
Having finished
the conquest of Sicily, he crossed the Straits of Messina, under the
nose of the Neapolitan fleet, and marched northward. Garibaldi's progress
was met with more celebration than resistance, and on September 7th
he entered the capital city of Naples. However, he had never defeated
the Bourbon king, Francis II. Most of the Sicilian army remained loyal,
and had gathered north of the river Volturno. Though by then Garibaldi's
volunteers numbered some 25,000, they could not oppose the Sicilians.
The volunteers had some success on the 1st of October, but Francis II
retired only the next day, after the arrival of the Sardinian army under
the command of Victor Emmanuel.
Garibaldi
deeply disliked the Sardinian Prime Minister, Camillo di Cavour. To
an extent, he simply mistrusted Cavour's pragmatism and realpolitik,
but he also bore a personal grudge for trading away his home city of
Nice to the French the previous year. On the other hand, he felt attracted
toward the Sardinian monarch, who in his opinion had been chosen by
Providence for the liberation of Italy. In his famous meeting with Victor
Emmanuel II at Teano on October 26, 1860, Garibaldi greeted him as King
of Italy and shook his hand. He resigned the next day. Garibaldi rode
into Naples at the king's side on November 7, then retired to the rocky
island of Caprera, refusing to accept any reward for his services.
Garibaldi's
fellow revolutionaries were not satisfied. With the motto "Free
from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its
gaze on Rome and Venice. Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation
of monarchial government, and continued to agitate for a republic. Garibaldi,
frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs,
organized a new venture. This time, he intended to take on the Papal
States.
A challenge
against the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by
Catholics around the world, and the French emperor Napoleon III had
guaranteed the independence of Rome from Italy by stationing French
troops in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions
of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating
in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, Garibaldi
believed he had the secret support of his government.
In June of
1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed at Palermo, seeking to gather
volunteers for the impending campaign. An enthusiastic party quickly
joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland
there. When he arrived, he had a force of some two thousand, but the
garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage.
They turned south and set sail from Catania, where Garibaldi declared
that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He
landed at Melito on August 14, and marched at once into the Calabrian
mountains.
Far from supporting
this endeavor, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General
Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino,
against the volunteer bands. On August 28 the two forces met in the
rugged Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several
volleys followed, killing a few of the volunteers. The fighting ended
quickly, as Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects
of the Kingdom of Italy. Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner,
including Garibaldi, who had been wounded.
A government
steamer took him to Varignano, where he was held in a sort of honorable
imprisonment, and was compelled to undergo a tedious and painful operation
for the healing of his wound. His venture had failed, but he was at
least consoled by Europe's sympathy and continued interest. After being
restored to health, he was released and allowed to return to Caprera.
At the outbreak
of the American Civil War, Garibaldi volunteered his services to President
Abraham Lincoln and was invited to serve as a brigadier general. Garibaldi
declined, stating he would only accept command of the entire Union Army,
and the offer was quietly withdrawn.
Garibaldi
took up arms again in 1866, this time with the full support of the Italian
government. The Austro-Prussian War had broken out, and Italy had allied
with Prussia against Austria-Hungary in the hope of taking Venetia from
Austrian rule. Garibaldi gathered again his Hunters of the Alps, now
some 40,000 strong, and led them into the Tyrol. He defeated the Austrians
at Bezzecca and made for Trento.
The Italian
regular forces, on the other hand, suffered defeat by land and sea.
Austria did cede Venetia to Italy, but it was compelled to do so not
by Italy's poor showing, but by Prussia's successes on the northern
front. Garibaldi's advance through Trentino was for nought and he was
ordered to stop his advance to Trento. He answered with a short telegram
"Obbedisco" (I obey).
After the
war, Garibaldi led a political party that agitated for the capture of
Rome, the peninsula's ancient capital. In 1867, he again marched on
the city, but the Papal army, supported by a French auxiliary force,
proved a match for his badly-armed volunteers. He was taken prisoner,
held captive for a time, and then again returned to Caprera.
At the outbreak
of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, French troops withdrew from Rome,
and the Italians captured the Papal States without Garibaldi's assistance.
Following the wartime collapse of the Second French Empire, Garibaldi
led a force of volunteers against Prussia in support of the new French
Third Republic, as he considered France the nation of freedom.
Garibaldi
statue in Washington Square Park, Lower Manhattan, New York City, New
York, USAOn his deathbed, Garibaldi asked that his bed be moved to where
he could gaze at the emerald and sapphire sea.
Garibaldi's
popularity, his skill at rousing the masses, and his military exploits
are all credited with making the unification of Italy possible. He also
served as a global exemplar of mid-19th century revolutionary nationalism
and liberalism. But following the liberation of southern Italy from
the Neapolitan monarchy, Garibaldi chose to sacrifice his liberal republican
principles for the sake of unification.
Garibaldi
subscribed to the anti-clericalism common among Latin liberals and did
much to circumscribe the temporal power of the Papacy. His personal
convictions bordered on atheism; he wrote in 1882, "Man created
God, not God Man." An active freemason, Garibaldi had little use
for rituals, but thought of masonry as a network to unite progressive
men as brothers both within nations and as members of a global community.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
died on the Italian island of Caprera in 1882, where he was interred.
Five ships of the Italian Navy have been named after him, among which
a World War II cruiser and the current flagship, the aircraft carrier
Giuseppe Garibaldi.
Statues of
his likeness, as well as the handshake of Teano, stand in many Italian
squares, and in other countries around the world. On the top of the
Janiculum hill in Rome, there is a statue of Garibaldi on horse-back
with his face turned in the direction of the Vatican, an allusion[citation
needed] to his ambition to conquer the Papal States. In Brazil, the
city of Garibaldi is named after him. Garibaldi, Oregon in the USA was
also named for the Italian patriot in 1867. Mt. Garibaldi, one the tallest
and most impressive peaks part of the Garibaldi Belt of volcanic mountains
located north of Vancouver, Canada, is also named after him.
It is said
that the Garibaldi biscuit is named for the famous commander, who gave
it to his men. His red-shirted volunteers also lent his name to the
garibaldi, a North American fish with a distinctive orange color. A
pub located in Bourne End, Buckinghamshire, England is also named after
the biscuit or, according to some, for the general. In Italian, the
word garibaldino refers not only to a follower of Garibaldi: in tribute
to the hero's exploits, it is also an adjective meaning bold or audacious.
The red strip of the English football club Nottingham Forest is sometimes
referred to as 'the garibaldi'. Garibaldi is known to have stayed in
Tynemouth House, Tynemouth, in the north east of England, now part of
The King's School, Tynemouth. A room in the house is subsequently named
The Garibaldi Room.
GARIBALDI,
Giuseppe, Italian patriot, born in Nice, 4 July, 1807; died in Caprera,
2 June, 1882. He followed the sea from his earliest youth, and in 1836
went to Rio Janeiro, where he engaged in the coasting trade. In 1837
he offered his services to the revolted Brazilian province of Rio Grande
do Sul, and commanded a fleet of gun-boats. After many daring exploits
he was forced to burn his vessels, and went to Montevideo, where he
became a broker and teacher of mathematics, He took service in Uruguay
in the war against Rosas, and was given the command of a small naval
force which he was obliged to abandon after a battle at Costa Brava
15 and 16 June, 1842. Garibaldi then organized the famous Italian legion,
with which for four years he fought numerous battles for the republic.
In 1845 he commanded an expedition to Salto, where he established his
headquarters, and toward the end of the year he resisted with 500 men
for three days the assault of Urquiza's army of 4,000 men. On 8 February,
1846, he repelled at San Antonio, with scarcely 200 men, General Servando
Gomez with 1., 200 soldiers. In 1847, when he heard of Italy's rising
against Austrian dominion, he went to assist his country, accompanied
by a portion of the Ital-Jan legion ; but, after taking part in several
unsuccessful attempts, including the defence of Rome against the French
in 1849, he sailed in June, 1850, for New York. On Staten island he
worked for a time with a countryman manufacturing candles and soap,
and in 1851 he went by way of Central America and Panama to Callao,
whence he sailed in 1852 in command of a vessel for China. Early in
1854 he returned to Italy, where he lived quietly in the island of Caprera.
At the opening of war against Austria in 1859 he organized the Alpine
chasseurs, and defeated the enemy in several encounters. After the peace
of Villafranca he began preparations for the expedition which was secretly
encouraged by the government. Having conquered Sicily and being proclaimed
dictator, he entered Naples in triumph on 7 September, 1860, but afterward
resigned the dictatorship and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy,
declining all proffered honors and retiring to Caprera. In 1862 he planned
the rescue of Rome from the French, and again invaded Calabria from
Sicily, but was wounded and captured at Aspromonte, 29 August, 1862,
and sent back to Caprera. In June, 1866, during the Austro-Prussian
war, he commanded for a short time an army of volunteers, and on 14
October, 1867, he undertook another expedition to liberate Rome, but
was routed by the Papal troops and the French. He entered the service
of the French republic in 1870, and he organized and commanded the chasseurs
of the Vosges. In 1871 he was elected to the Italian parliament, and
took an active part in poll-tics till the end of his life. In 1888 the
Italians in New York erected a bronze statue of him which was unveiled
in Washington square, 4 June, 1888. He wrote several novels, including
"Cantoni il volontario " (Genoa, 1870) ; " Clelia, ovvero
il governo monaco; Roma del secolo XIX" (1870), which in the same
year was translated into English under the title of " The Rule
of the Monk, or Rome in the 19th Century"; " Il frate dominatore"
(1873) ; and a poem, " Le Mila di Marsala" (1873). Many biographies
of Garibaldi have been written and translated into English, including
those by W. Robson (London, 1860), by Theodore Dwight (New York, 1860),
and by Mrs. Gaskell (London, 1862). An autobiography appeared after
his death, under the title " Garibaldi ; Memorie autobiografiche"
(Florence, 1888).
July 4, 1807
- June 2, 1882
was an Italian nationalist and soldier of the Risorgimento. He personally
led many of the military campaigns that brought about the formation
of a unified Italy. He was called the "Hero of the Two Worlds,"
in tribute to his military adventures in South America and Europe.
He was born
in the coastal city of Nice, and reared to a life on the sea. The city
was then part of Savoy, in the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.
Influenced
by Giuseppe Mazzini, an impassioned proponent of Italian nationalism,
he joined the Carbonari revolutionary association. He participated in
a failed republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. Sentenced to death,
he escaped to South America. In 1839, he joined the rebel cause in the
War of Tatters revolt in Brazil, which had broken out a few years before.
Six years of tenacity proved unsuccessful, and the rebels finally surrendered
in 1845. He later commanded the Uruguayan navy in defence against Juan
Manuel de Rosas of Argentina, who was trying to reannex the country.
Garibaldi
returned to Italy in the tumult of the revolutions of 1848, and offered
his services to Charles Albert of Sardinia. The monarch displayed some
liberal inclinations, but treated Garibaldi with coolness and distrust.
Meanwhile, a Roman Republic had been proclaimed in the Papal States,
but an Austrian and French force threatened to topple it. At Mazzini's
urging, Garibaldi took up the command of the defence of Rome. His wife,
Anita, fought with him. Despite their effort, the city fell, and Garibaldi
was forced to flee to the north, hunted by the Austrian troops that
had entered into the Papal States. He eventually managed to escape abroad,
but he had lost Anita. In 1850 he became a resident of New York, where
he met Antonio Meucci. For some time he worked in a manufactory of candles
on Staten Island, and afterwards made several voyages on the Pacific.
Garibaldi
returned to Italy in 1854. In 1859, the Austro-Sardinian War broke out
through the machinations of the Sardinian government. Garibaldi was
appointed major general, and formed a volunteer unit named the Hunters
of the Alps. With his volunteers, he won victories over the Austrians
at Varese, Como, and other places. One outcome of the war, though, left
Garibaldi very displeased. His home city of Nice was surrendered to
the French, in return for crucial military assistance.
Part 3: Campaign
of 1860
At the beginning of April 1860, uprisings in Messina and Palermo in
the absolutist Kingdom of the Two Sicilies provided Garibaldi with an
opportunity. He gathered about a thousand volunteers (called i Mille,
or, as popularly known, the "Red Shirts") in two ships, and
landed at Marsala, on the westernmost point of Sicily, on May 11.
Conquest of
Sicily
Swelling the ranks of his army with scattered bands of local rebels,
Garibaldi defeated an opposing army at Catalafimi on May 13. The next
day, he declared himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel
II of Italy. He advanced then to Palermo, the capital of the island,
and launched a siege on May 27. He had the support of many of the inhabitants,
who rose up against the garrison, but before the city could be taken,
reinforcements arrived and bombarded the city nearly to ruins. At this
time, a British admiral intervened and facilitated an armistice, by
which the Neapolitan royal troops and warships departed and surrendered
the city.
Garibaldi
had won a signal victory. He gained worldwide renown and the adulation
of Italians. Faith in his prowess was so strong that doubt, confusion,
and dismay seized even the Neapolitan court. Six weeks later, he marched
against Messina in the east of the island. By the conclusion of July,
only the citadel resisted him.
Crossing to
the Mainland
Having finished
the conquest of Sicily, he crossed the Straits of Messina, under the
nose of the Neapolitan fleet, and marched northward. Garibaldi's progress
was met with more celebration than resistance, and on September 7th
he entered the capital city of Naples. However, he had never defeated
the king, Francis II. Most of the army remained loyal, and had gathered
north of the river Volturno. Though by then his volunteers numbered
some 25,000, Garibaldi could not oppose it. A major battle was fought
on the Volturno on the 1st and 2nd of October, but the bulk of the fighting
was left to the Sardinian army under the command of Victor Emmanuel.
Garibaldi
deeply disliked the Sardinian Prime Minister, Camillo di Cavour. To
an extent, he simply mistrusted Cavour's pragmatism and realpolitik,
but he also bore a personal grudge for trading away his home city of
Nice to the French the previous year. On the other hand, he felt attracted
toward the king, who in his opinion had been chosen by Providence for
the liberation of Italy. He greeted Victor Emmanuel with the title of
King of Italy, and resigned the next day, telegraphing the single word
Obbedisco ("I obey"). Garibaldi rode into Naples at the king's
side, then retired to the rocky island of Caprera, refusing to accept
any reward for his services.
Garibaldi's
fellow revolutionaries were not satisfied. With the motto "Free
from the Alps to the Adriatic," the unification movement set its
gaze on Rome and Venice. Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation
of monarchial government, and continued to agitate for a republic. Garibaldi,
frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs,
organized a new venture. This time, he intended to take on the Papal
States.
Part 4: Expedition
Against Rome
A challenge against the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great
distrust by Catholics around the world, and French troops were stationed
in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international reprecussions
of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating
in revolutionary ventures with such intentions. Nonetheless, Garibaldi
believed he had the secret support of his government.
In June of
1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed at Palermo, seeking to gather
volunteers for the impending campaign. An enthusiastic party quickly
joined him, and he turned for Messina, hoping to cross to the mainland
there. When he arrived, he had a force of some two thousand, but the
garrison proved loyal to the king's instructions and barred his passage.
They turned south and set sail from Catania, where Garibaldi declared
that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He
landed at Melito on August 14, and marched at once into the Calabrian
mountains.
Far from supporting
this endeavor, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General
Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino,
against the volunteer bands. On August 28 the two forces met in the
rugged Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several
volleys followed, killing a few of the volunteers. The fighting ended
quickly, as Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects
of the Kingdom of Italy. Many of the volunteers were taken prisoner,
including Garibaldi, who had been wounded.
A government
steamer took him to Varignano, where he was held in a sort of honorable
imprisonment, and was compelled to undergo a tedious and painful operation
for the healing of his wound. His venture had failed, but he was at
least consoled by Europe's sympathy and continued interest. After being
restored to health, he was released and allowed to return to Caprera.
Part 5: In
the Austro-Prussian War and Afterward
Garibaldi took up arms again in 1866, this time with the full support
of the Italian government. Italy had allied with Prussia against Austria-Hungary,
seeking to take Venetia from Austrian rule. He gathered again his Hunters
of the Alps, now some 40,000 strong, and led them into the Tyrol. While
the Italian regular forces suffered defeat by land and sea, Garibaldi
defeated the Austrians at Bezzecca and made for Trento.
Italy did
annex Venetia, though this was due not to its own military prowess but
to Prussia's. Garibaldi's success in Trentino was for nought.
Garibaldi
now led a political party that agitated for the capture of Rome, the
peninsula's ancient capital. In 1867, he again marched on the city,
but the Papal army, supported by a French auxiliary force, proved a
match for his badly-armed volunteers. He was taken prisoner, held captive
for a time, and then again returned to Caprera. French troops withdrew
from Rome in 1870, and the Italians captured the Papal States without
Garibaldi's assistance.
During the
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, he led a force of volunteers in support
of the new French republic.
Part 6: Legacy
Garibaldi's popularity, his skill at rousing the masses, and his military
exploits are all credited with making the unification of Italy possible.
He died on
Caprera, where he was interred. Five ships of the Italian Navy have
been named after him, among which the current flagship, the aircraft
carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi.