Augustine of Hippo
Bishop and Doctor
of the Church
Born November 13, 354, Souk-Ahras, Algeria
Died August 28, 430, Hippo
Feast August 28
Attributes child; dove; pen; shell, pierced heart
Patronage brewers; Bridgeport, Connecticut; Cagayan de Oro, Philippines;
Ida, Philippines; Kalamazoo Michigan; printers; Saint Augustine, Florida;
sore eyes; Superior, Wisconsin; theologians; Tucson, Arizona
Aurelius Augustinus,
Augustine of Hippo, or Saint Augustine (November 13, 354–August
28, 430) was one of the most important figures in the development of
Western Christianity. In Roman Catholicism, he is a saint and pre-eminent
Doctor of the Church. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider
him to be one of the theological fountainheads of Reformation teaching
on salvation and grace. Born in Africa as the eldest son of Saint Monica,
he was educated and baptized in Italy. His works—including The
Confessions, which is often called the first Western autobiography—are
still read by Christians around the world.
Saint Augustine
was born in 354 in Tagaste, a provincial Roman city in North Africa.
He was raised and educated in Carthage. His mother Monica was a devout
Catholic[1] and his father Patricius a pagan, but Augustine followed
the controversial Manichaean religion, much to the horror of his mother.
As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, and in
Carthage, he developed a relationship with a young woman who would be
his concubine for over a decade, with whom he had a son. His education
and early career was in philosophy and rhetoric, the art of persuasion
and public speaking. He taught in Tagaste and Carthage, but desired
to travel to Rome where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians
practiced. However, Augustine grew disappointed with the Roman schools,
which he found apathetic. Once the time came for his students to pay
their fees they simply fled. Manichean friends introduced him to the
prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked to provide
a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at Milan.
"St Augustine
and Monica" (1846), by Ary Scheffer.The young provincial won the
job and headed north to take up his position in late 384. At age thirty,
Augustine had won the most visible academic chair in the Latin world,
at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. However,
he felt the tensions of life at an imperial court, lamenting one day
as he rode in his carriage to deliver a grand speech before the emperor,
that a drunken beggar he passed on the street had a less careworn existence
than he.
His mother Monica
pressured him to become a Catholic, but it was the bishop of Milan,
Ambrose, who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master
of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced.
Prompted in part by Ambrose's sermons, and other studies, including
a disappointing meeting with a key exponent of Manichaean theology,
Augustine moved away from Manichaeism; but instead of becoming Catholic
like Ambrose and Monica, he converted to a pagan Neoplatonic approach
to truth, saying that for a time he had a sense of making real progress
in his quest, although he eventually lapsed into skepticism.
Augustine's mother
had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage,
for which he abandoned his concubine (however he had to wait two years
until his fiancée came of age; he promptly took up in the meantime
with another woman). It was during this period Augustine of Hippo uttered
his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet"
[da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo] (Conf., VIII. vii
(17)).
In the summer of
386, after having read an account of the life of Saint Anthony of the
Desert which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal
crisis and decided to convert to Christianity, abandon his career in
rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of
marriage (much to the horror of his mother), and devote himself entirely
to serving God and the practices of priesthood, which included celibacy.
Key to this conversion was the voice of a small girl he heard at one
point telling him in a sing-song voice to 'Take up and read' the Bible,
at which point he opened the Bible at random and fell upon a passage
from St. Paul. He would detail his spiritual journey in his famous Confessions,
which went on to become a classic of both Christian theology and world
literature. Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son, on Easter
day in 387, and soon thereafter in 388 he returned to Africa. On his
way back to Africa his mother died, as did his son soon after, leaving
him relatively alone in the world without family.
Upon his return
to north Africa he created a monastic foundation at Tagaste for himself
and a group of friends. In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius,
(now Annaba, in Algeria). He became a famous preacher (more than 350
preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating
the Manichaean heresy, to which he had formerly adhered.
In 396 he was made
coadjutor bishop of Hippo (assistant with the right of succession on
the death of the current bishop), and remained as bishop in Hippo until
his death in 430. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic
life in the episcopal residence. He left a Rule (Latin, Regula) for
his monastery that has led him to be designated the "patron saint
of Regular Clergy," that is, parish clergy who live by a monastic
rule.
Augustine died on
August 28, 430, during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. He is said
to have encouraged its citizens to resist the attacks, primarily on
the grounds that the Vandals adhered to the Arian heresy.
Influence as a theologian
and thinker
Detail of St. Augustine in a stained glass window by Louis Comfort Tiffany
in the Lightner Museum, St. Augustine, Florida.Augustine remains a central
figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought.
In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly
influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by
the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation
of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). His generally
favorable outlook upon Neoplatonic thought contributed to the "baptism"
of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently
the European intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing
on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for
later philosophers such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.
It is largely due
to Augustine's arguments against the Pelagians, who did not believe
in original sin, that Western Christianity has maintained the doctrine
of original sin. However, Eastern Orthodox theologians, while they believe
all humans were damaged by the original sin of Adam and Eve, have key
disputes with Augustine about this doctrine, and as such this is viewed
as a key source of division between East and West.
Augustine's writings
helped formulate the theory of the just war. He also advocated the use
of force against the Donatists, asking "Why ... should not the
Church use force in compelling her lost sons to return, if the lost
sons compelled others to their destruction?" (The Correction of
the Donatists, 22–24)
St. Thomas Aquinas
took much from Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis
of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the
work of Aristotle.
While Augustine's
doctrine of divine predestination would never be wholly forgotten within
the Catholic Church, finding eloquent expression in the works of Bernard
of Clairvaux, Reformation theologians such as Martin Luther and John
Calvin would look back to him as the inspiration for their avowed capturing
of the Biblical Gospel. Later, within the Catholic Church, the writings
of Cornelius Jansen, who claimed heavy influence from Augustine, would
form the basis of the movement known as Jansenism; some Jansenists went
into schism and formed their own church.
Augustine was canonized
by popular recognition and recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1303
by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is August 28, the day on which
he is thought to have died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers,
printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.
The latter part
of Augustine's Confessions consists of an extended meditation on the
nature of time. Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's
belief that God exists outside of time in the "eternal present";
that time only exists within the created universe.
Augustine's meditations
on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the
human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study, The Art of
Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, X.8.12, in which
Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast
fields of memory (see text and commentary)clearly indicates that the
ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural
metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.
A few French philosophers have argued that this technique can be seen
as the conceptual ancestor of the user interface paradigm of virtual
reality.[citation needed]
According to Leo
Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from
miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and
became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft.
Natural knowledge
and biblical interpretation
A more clear distinction between "metaphorical" and "literal"
in literary texts arose with the rise of the Scientific Revolution,
although its source could be found in earlier writings, such as those
of Herodotus (5th century BC). It was even considered heretical to interpret
the Bible literally at times (cf. Origen, St. Jerome). Augustine took
the view that the Biblical text should not be interpreted literally
if it contradicts what we know from science and our God-given reason.
In an important passage on his "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis"
(early 5th century, AD), St. Augustine wrote:
"It not infrequently
happens that something about the earth, about the sky, about other elements
of this world, about the motion and rotation or even the magnitude and
distances of the stars, about definite eclipses of the sun and moon,
about the passage of years and seasons, about the nature of animals,
of fruits, of stones, and of other such things, may be known with the
greatest certainty by reasoning or by experience, even by one who is
not a Christian. It is too disgraceful and ruinous, though, and greatly
to be avoided, that he [the non-Christian] should hear a Christian speaking
so idiotically on these matters, and as if in accord with Christian
writings, that he might say that he could scarcely keep from laughing
when he saw how totally in error they are. In view of this and in keeping
it in mind constantly while dealing with the book of Genesis, I have,
insofar as I was able, explained in detail and set forth for consideration
the meanings of obscure passages, taking care not to affirm rashly some
one meaning to the prejudice of another and perhaps better explanation."
(The Literal Interpretation of Genesis 1:19–20, Chapt. 19 [AD
408])
"With the scriptures it is a matter of treating about the faith.
For that reason, as I have noted repeatedly, if anyone, not understanding
the mode of divine eloquence, should find something about these matters
[about the physical universe] in our books, or hear of the same from
those books, of such a kind that it seems to be at variance with the
perceptions of his own rational faculties, let him believe that these
other things are in no way necessary to the admonitions or accounts
or predictions of the scriptures. In short, it must be said that our
authors knew the truth about the nature of the skies, but it was not
the intention of the Spirit of God, who spoke through them, to teach
men anything that would not be of use to them for their salvation."
(ibid, 2:9)
Creation
In "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis" Augustine took
the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously
by God, and not in seven days like a plain account of Genesis would
require. He argues that the six-day structure of creation presented
in the book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the
passage of time in a physical way. Augustine also doesn’t envisage
original sin as originating structural changes in the universe, and
even suggests that the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal
before the Fall. Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognizes
that the interpretation of the creation story is difficult, and remarks
that we should be willing to change our mind about it as new information
comes up. [1]
In "The City
of God", Augustine also defended what would be called today as
Young Earth creationism. In the specific passage, Augustine rejected
both the immortality of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary
ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed
from the Church's sacred writings:
"Let us, then,
omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak
of the nature and origin of the human race. For some hold the same opinion
regarding men that they hold regarding the world itself, that they have
always been... They are deceived, too, by those highly mendacious documents
which profess to give the history of many thousand years, though, reckoning
by the sacred writings, we find that not 6000 years have yet passed."
(Augustine, Of the Falseness of the History Which Allots Many Thousand
Years to the World’s Past, The City of God, Book 12: Chapt. 10
[AD 419]).
Augustine and the
Jews
Augustine wrote in Book 18, Chapter 46 of The City of God [2] (one of
his most celebrated works along with The Confessions): "The Jews
who slew Him, and would not believe in Him, because it behooved Him
to die and rise again, were yet more miserably wasted by the Romans,
and utterly rooted out from their kingdom, where aliens had already
ruled over them, and were dispersed through the lands (so that indeed
there is no place where they are not), and are thus by their own Scriptures
a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ."
Augustine deemed
this scattering important because he believed that it was a fulfillment
of certain prophecies, thus proving that Jesus was the Messiah. This
is because Augustine believed that the Jews who were dispersed were
the enemies of the Christian Church. He also quotes part of the same
prophecy that says "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget
Thy law". Some people have used Augustine's words to attack Jews
as anti-Christian, while others have used them to attack Christians
as anti-Jewish. See Christianity and anti-Semitism.
Augustine was born
at Tagaste on 13 November, 354. Tagaste, now Souk-Ahras, about 60 miles
from Bona (ancient Hippo-Regius), was at that time a small free city
of proconsular Numidia which had recently been converted from Donatism.
Although eminently respectable, his family was not rich, and his father,
Patricius, one of the curiales of the city, was still a pagan. However,
the admirable virtues that made Monica the ideal of Christian mothers
at length brought her husband the grace of baptism and of a holy death,
about the year 371.
Augustine received
a Christian education. Once when very ill he asked for baptism, but
all danger being soon passed he deferred receiving the sacrament, thus
yielding to a deplorable custom of the times. His association with "men
of prayer" left three great ideas deeply engraven upon his soul:
a Divine Providence, the future life with terrible sanctions, and, above
all, Christ the Saviour. "From my tenderest infancy, I had in a
manner sucked with my mother's milk that name of my Saviour, Thy Son;
I kept it in the recesses of my heart; and all that presented itself
to me without that Divine Name, though it might be elegant, well written,
and even replete with truth, did not altogether carry me away"
In 373, an entirely
new inclination manifested itself in his life, brought about by the
reading Cicero's "Hortensius" whence he imbibed a love of
the wisdom which Cicero so eloquently praises. Thenceforward Augustine
looked upon rhetoric merely as a profession; his heart was in philosophy.
In 373, Augustine and his friend Honoratus fell into the snares of the
Manichæans. It seems strange that so great a mind should have
been victimized by Oriental vapourings, synthesized by the Persian Mani
(215-276) into coarse, material dualism, and introduced into Africa
scarcely fifty years previously. Augustine himself tells us that he
was enticed by the promises of a free philosophy unbridled by faith;
by the boasts of the Manichæans, who claimed to have discovered
contradictions in Holy Writ; and, above all, by the hope of finding
in their doctrine a scientific explanation of nature and its most mysterious
phenomena. Augustine's inquiring mind was enthusiastic for the natural
sciences, and the Manichæans declared that nature withheld no
secrets from Faustus, their doctor. Moreover, being tortured by the
problem of the origin of evil, Augustine, in default of solving it,
acknowledged a conflict of two principles. And then, again, there was
a very powerful charm in the moral irresponsibility resulting from a
doctrine which denied liberty and attributed the commission of crime
to a foreign principle.
Once won over to
this sect, Augustine devoted himself to it with all the ardour of his
character; he read all its books, adopted and defended all its opinions.
His furious proselytism drew into error his friend Alypius and Romanianus,
his Mæcenas of Tagaste, the friend of his father who was defraying
the expenses of Augustine's studies. It was during this Manichæan
period that Augustine's literary faculties reached their full development,
and he was still a student at Carthage when he embraced error. His studies
ended, he should in due course have entered the forum litigiosum, but
he preferred the career of letters, and Possidius tells us that he returned
to Tagaste to "teach grammar." The young professor captivated
his pupils, one of whom, Alypius, hardly younger than his master, loath
to leave, him after following him into error, was afterwards baptized
with him at Milan, eventually becoming Bishop of Tagaste, his native
city. But Monica deeply deplored Augustine's heresy and would not have
received him into her home or at her table but for the advice of a saintly
bishop, who declared that "the son of so many tears could not perish."
Soon afterwards Augustine went to Carthage, where he continued to teach
rhetoric.
His talents shone
to even better advantage on this wider stage, and by an indefatigable
pursuit of the liberal arts his intellect attained its full maturity.
Having taken part in a poetic tournament, he carried off the prize,
and the Proconsul Vindicianus publicly conferred upon him the corona
agonistica. It was at this moment of literary intoxication, when he
had just completed his first work on æsthetics, now lost that
he began to repudiate Manichæism. Even when Augustine was in his
first fervour, the teachings of Mani had been far from quieting his
restlessness, and although he has been accused of becoming a priest
of the sect, he was never initiated or numbered among the "elect,"
but remained an "auditor" the lowest degree in the hierarchy.
Reason for his disenchantment. First of all there was the fearful depravity
of Manichæan philosophy — "They destroy everything
and build up nothing"; then, the dreadful immorality in contrast
with their affectation of virtue; the feebleness of their arguments
in controversy with the Catholics, to whose Scriptural arguments their
only reply was: "The Scriptures have been falsified." But,
worse than all, he did not find science among them — science in
the modern sense of the word — that knowledge of nature and its
laws which they had promised him. When he questioned them concerning
the movements of the stars, none of them could answer him. "Wait
for Faustus," they said, "he will explain everything to you."
Faustus of Mileve, the celebrated Manichæan bishop, at last came
to Carthage; Augustine visited and questioned him, and discovered in
his responses the vulgar rhetorician, the utter stranger to all scientific
culture. The spell was broken, and, although Augustine did not immediately
abandon the sect, his mind rejected Manichæan doctrines. The illusion
had lasted nine years.
But the religious
crisis of this great soul was only to be resolved in Italy, under the
influence of Ambrose. In 383 Augustine, at the age of twenty-nine, yielded
to the irresistible attraction which Italy had for him, but his mother
suspected his departure and was so reluctant to be separated from him
that he resorted to a subterfuge and embarked under cover of the night.
He had only just arrived in Rome when he was taken seriously ill; upon
recovering he opened a school of rhetoric, but, disgusted by the tricks
of his pupils, who shamelessly defrauded him of their tuition fees,
he applied for a vacant professorship at Milan, obtained it, and was
accepted by the prefect, Symmachus. Having visited Bishop Ambrose, the
fascination of that saint's kindness induced him to become a regular
attendant at his preachings. However, before embracing the Faith, Augustine
underwent a three years' struggle during which his mind passed through
several distinct phases.
At first he turned
towards the philosophy of the Academics, with its pessimistic scepticism;
then neo-Platonic philosophy inspired him with genuine enthusiasm. At
Milan he had scarcely read certain works of Plato and, more especially,
of Plotinus, before the hope of finding the truth dawned upon him. Once
more he began to dream that he and his friends might lead a life dedicated
to the search for it, a life purged of all vulgar aspirations after
honours, wealth, or pleasure, and with celibacy for its rule (Confessions,
VI). But it was only a dream; his passions still enslaved him. Monica,
who had joined her son at Milan, prevailed upon him to become betrothed,
but his affianced bride was too young, and although Augustine dismissed
the mother of Adeodatus, her place was soon filled by another. Thus
did he pass through one last period of struggle and anguish.
Finally, through
the reading of the Holy Scriptures light penetrated his mind. Soon he
possessed the certainty that Jesus Christ is the only way to truth and
salvation. After that resistance came only from the heart. An interview
with Simplicianus, the future successor of St. Ambrose, who told Augustine
the story of the conversion of the celebrated neo-Platonic rhetorician,
Victorinus (Confessions, VIII, i, ii), prepared the way for the grand
stroke of grace which, at the age of thirty-three, smote him to the
ground in the garden at Milan (September, 386). A few days later Augustine,
being ill, took advantage of the autumn holidays and, resigning his
professorship, went with Monica, Adeodatus, and his friends to Cassisiacum,
the country estate of Verecundus, there to devote himself to the pursuit
of true philosophy which, for him, was now inseparable from Christianity.
II. FROM HIS CONVERSION
TO HIS EPISCOPATE (386-395)
Augustine gradually
became acquainted with Christian doctrine, and in his mind the fusion
of Platonic philosophy with revealed dogmas was taking place. The law
that governed this change of thought has of late years been frequently
misconstrued; it is sufficiently important to be precisely defined.
The solitude of Cassisiacum realized a long-cherished dream. In his
books "Against the Academics," Augustine has described the
ideal serenity of this existence, enlivened only by the passion for
truth. He completed the education of his young friends, now by literary
readings in common, now by philosophical conferences to which he sometimes
invited Monica, and the accounts of which, compiled by a secretary,
have supplied the foundation of the "Dialogues." Licentius,
in his "Letters," would later on recall these delightful philosophical
mornings and evenings, at which Augustine was wont to evolve the most
elevating discussions from the most commonplace incidents. The favourite
topics at their conferences were truth, certainty (Against the Academics),
true happiness in philosophy (On a Happy Life), the Providential order
of the world and the problem of evil (On Order) and finally God and
the soul (Soliloquies, On the Immortality of the Soul).
Here arises the
curious question propounded modern critics: Was Augustine a Christian
when wrote these "Dialogues" at Cassisiacum? Until now no
one had doubted it; historians, relying upon the "Confessions,"
had all believed that Augustine's retirement to the villa had for its
twofold object the improvement of his health and his preparation for
baptism. But certain critics nowadays claim to have discovered a radical
opposition between the philosophical "Dialogues" composed
in this retirement and the state of soul described in the "Confessions."
According to Harnack, in writing the "Confessions" Augustine
must have projected upon the recluse of 386 the sentiments of the bishop
of 400. Others go farther and maintain that the recluse of the Milanese
villa could not have been at heart a Christian, but a Platonist; and
that the scene in the garden was a conversion not to Christianity, but
to philosophy, the genuinely Christian phase beginning only in 390.
But this interpretation of the "Dialogues" cannot withstand
the test of facts and texts. It is admitted that Augustine received
baptism at Easter, 387; and who could suppose that it was for him a
meaningless ceremony?
So too, how can
it be admitted that the scene in the garden, the example of the recluses,
the reading of St. Paul, the conversion of Victorinus, Augustine's ecstasies
in reading the Psalms with Monica were all invented after the fact?
Again, as it was in 388 that Augustine wrote his beautiful apology "On
the Holiness of the Catholic Church," how is it conceivable that
he was not yet a Christian at that date? To settle the argument, however,
it is only necessary to read the "Dialogues" themselves. They
are certainly a purely philosophical work — a work of youth, too,
not without some pretension, as Augustine ingenuously acknowledges (Confessions,
IX, iv); nevertheless, they contain the entire history of his Christian
formation. As early as 386, the first work written at Cassisiacum reveals
to us the great underlying motive of his researches. The object of his
philosophy is to give authority the support of reason, and "for
him the great authority, that which dominates all others and from which
he never wished to deviate, is the authority of Christ"; and if
he loves the Platonists it is because he counts on finding among them
interpretations always in harmony with his faith (Against the Academics,
III, c. x).
To be sure such
confidence was excessive, but it remains evident that in these "Dialogues"
it is a Christian, and not a Platonist, that speaks. He reveals to us
the intimate details of his conversion, the argument that convinced
him (the life and conquests of the Apostles), his progress in the Faith
at the school of St. Paul (ibid., II, ii), his delightful conferences
with his friends on the Divinity of Jesus Christ, the wonderful transformations
worked in his soul by faith, even to that victory of his over the intellectual
pride which his Platonic studies had aroused in him (On The Happy Life,
I, ii), and at last the gradual calming of his passions and the great
resolution to choose wisdom for his only spouse (Soliloquies, I, x).
It is now easy to
appreciate at its true value the influence of neo-Platonism upon the
mind of the great African Doctor. It would be impossible for anyone
who has read the works of St. Augustine to deny the existence of this
influence. However, it would be a great exaggeration of this influence
to pretend that it at any time sacrificed the Gospel to Plato. The same
learned critic thus wisely concludes his study: "So long, therefore,
as his philosophy agrees with his religious doctrines, St. Augustine
is frankly neo-Platonist; as soon as a contradiction arises, he never
hesitates to subordinate his philosophy to religion, reason to faith.
He was, first of all, a Christian; the philosophical questions that
occupied his mind constantly found themselves more and more relegated
to the background" (op. cit., 155). But the method was a dangerous
one; in thus seeking harmony between the two doctrines he thought too
easily to find Christianity in Plato, or Platonism in the Gospel.
More than once,
in his "Retractations" and elsewhere, he acknowledges that
he has not always shunned this danger. Thus he had imagined that in
Platonism he discovered the entire doctrine of the Word and the whole
prologue of St. John. He likewise disavowed a good number of neo-Platonic
theories which had at first misled him — the cosmological thesis
of the universal soul, which makes the world one immense animal —
the Platonic doubts upon that grave question: Is there a single soul
for all or a distinct soul for each? But on the other hand, he had always
reproached the Platonists, as Schaff very properly remarks (Saint Augustine,
New York, 1886, p. 51), with being ignorant of, or rejecting, the fundamental
points of Christianity: "first, the great mystery, the Word made
flesh; and then love, resting on the basis of humility." They also
ignore grace, he says, giving sublime precepts of morality without any
help towards realizing them.
It was this Divine
grace that Augustine sought in Christian baptism. Towards the beginning
of Lent, 387, he went to Milan and, with Adeodatus and Alypius, took
his place among the competentes, being baptized by Ambrose on Easter
Day, or at least during Eastertide. The tradition maintaining that the
Te Deum was sung on that occasion by the bishop and the neophyte alternately
is groundless. Nevertheless this legend is certainly expressive of the
joy of the Church upon receiving as her son him who was to be her most
illustrious doctor. It was at this time that Augustine, Alypius, and
Evodius resolved to retire into solitude in Africa. Augustine undoubtedly
remained at Milan until towards autumn, continuing his works: "On
the Immortality of the Soul" and "On Music." In the autumn
of 387, he was about to embark at Ostia, when Monica was summoned from
this life.
In all literature
there are no pages of more exquisite sentiment than the story of her
saintly death and Augustine's grief (Confessions, IX). Augustine remained
several months in Rome, chiefly engaged in refuting Manichæism.
He sailed for Africa after the death of the tyrant Maximus (August 388)
and after a short sojourn in Carthage, returned to his native Tagaste.
Immediately upon arriving there, he wished to carry out his idea of
a perfect life, and began by selling all his goods and giving the proceeds
to the poor. Then he and his friends withdrew to his estate, which had
already been alienated, there to lead a common life in poverty, prayer,
and the study of sacred letters. Book of the "LXXXIII Questions"
is the fruit of conferences held in this retirement, in which he also
wrote "De Genesi contra Manichæos," "De Magistro,"
and, "De Vera Religione."
Augustine did not
think of entering the priesthood, and, through fear of the episcopacy,
he even fled from cities in which an election was necessary. One day,
having been summoned to Hippo by a friend whose soul's salvation was
at stake, he was praying in a church when the people suddenly gathered
about him, cheered him, and begged Valerius, the bishop, to raise him
to the priesthood. In spite of his tears Augustine was obliged to yield
to their entreaties, and was ordained in 391. The new priest looked
upon his ordination as an additional reason for resuming religious life
at Tagaste, and so fully did Valerius approve that he put some church
property at Augustine's disposal, thus enabling him to establish a monastery
the second that he had founded.
His priestly ministry
of five years was admirably fruitful; Valerius had bidden him preach,
in spite of the deplorable custom which in Africa reserved that ministry
to bishops. Augustine combated heresy, especially Manichæism,
and his success was prodigious. Fortunatus, one of their great doctors,
whom Augustine had challenged in public conference, was so humiliated
by his defeat that he fled from Hippo. Augustine also abolished the
abuse of holding banquets in the chapels of the martyrs. He took part,
8 October, 393, in the Plenary Council of Africa, presided over by Aurelius,
Bishop of Carthage, and, at the request of the bishops, was obliged
to deliver a discourse which, in its completed form, afterwards became
the treatise "De Fide et symbolo."
Enfeebled by old
age, Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, obtained the authorization of Aurelius,
Primate of Africa, to associate Augustine with himself as coadjutor.
Augustine had to resign himself to consecration at the hands of Megalius,
Primate of Numidia. He was then forty two, and was to occupy the See
of Hippo for thirty-four years. The new bishop understood well how to
combine the exercise of his pastoral duties with the austerities of
the religious life, and although he left his convent, his episcopal
residence became a monastery where he lived a community life with his
clergy, who bound themselves to observe religious poverty. Was it an
order of regular clerics or of monks that he thus founded? This is a
question often asked, but we feel that Augustine gave but little thought
to such distinctions. Be that as it may, the episcopal house of Hippo
became a veritable nursery which supplied the founders of the monasteries
that were soon spread all over Africa and the bishops who occupied the
neighbouring sees. Possidius (Vita S. August., xxii) enumerates ten
of the saint's friends and disciples who were promoted to the episcopacy.
Thus it was that Augustine earned the title of patriarch of the religious,
and renovator of the clerical, life in Africa.
But he was above
all the defender of truth and the shepherd of souls. His doctrinal activities,
the influence of which was destined to last as long as the Church itself,
were manifold: he preached frequently, sometimes for five days consecutively,
his sermons breathing a spirit of charity that won all hearts; he wrote
letters which scattered broadcast through the then known world his solutions
of the problems of that day; he impressed his spirit upon divers African
councils at which he assisted, for instance, those of Carthage in 398,
401, 407, 419 and of Mileve in 416 and 418; and lastly struggled indefatigably
against all errors. To relate these struggles were endless; we shall,
therefore, select only the chief controversies and indicate in each
the doctrinal attitude of the great Bishop of Hippo.
Problem of Evil
- After Augustine became bishop the zeal which, from the time of his
baptism, he had manifested in bringing his former co-religionists into
the true Church, took on a more paternal form without losing its pristine
ardour — "let those rage against us who know not at what
a bitter cost truth is attained. . . . As for me, I should show you
the same forbearance that my brethren had for me when I blind, was wandering
in your doctrines" (Contra Epistolam Fundamenti, iii). Among the
most memorable events that occurred during this controversy was the
great victory won in 404 over Felix, one of the "elect" of
the Manichæans and the great doctor of the sect. He was propagating
his errors in Hippo, and Augustine invited him to a public conference
the issue of which would necessarily cause a great stir; Felix declared
himself vanquished, embraced the Faith, and, together with Augustine,
subscribed the acts of the conference. In his writings Augustine successively
refuted Mani (397), the famous Faustus (400), Secundinus (405), and
(about 415) the fatalistic Priscillianists whom Paulus Orosius had denounced
to him. These writings contain the saint's clear, unquestionable views
on the eternal problem of evil, views based on an optimism proclaiming,
like the Platonists, that every work of God is good and that the only
source of moral evil is the liberty of creatures (De Civitate Dei, XIX,
c. xiii, n. 2). Augustine takes up the defence of free will, even in
man as he is, with such ardour that his works against the Manichæan
are an inexhaustible storehouse of arguments in this still living controversy.
In vain have the
Jansenists maintained that Augustine was unconsciously a Pelagian and
that he afterwards acknowledged the loss of liberty through the sin
of Adam. Modern critics, doubtless unfamiliar with Augustine's complicated
system and his peculiar terminology, have gone much farther. In the
"Revue d'histoire et de littérature religieuses" (1899,
p. 447), M. Margival exhibits St. Augustine as the victim of metaphysical
pessimism unconsciously imbibed from Manichæan doctrines. "Never,"
says he, "will the Oriental idea of the necessity and the eternity
of evil have a more zealous defender than this bishop." Nothing
is more opposed to the facts. Augustine acknowledges that he had not
yet understood how the first good inclination of the will is a gift
of God (Retractions, I, xxiii, n, 3); but it should be remembered that
he never retracted his leading theories on liberty, never modified his
opinion upon what constitutes its essential condition, that is to say,
the full power of choosing or of deciding. Who will dare to say that
in revising his own writings on so important a point he lacked either
clearness of perception or sincerity?
Theory of the Church
- The Donatist schism was the last episode in the Montanist and Novatian
controversies which had agitated the Church from the second century.
While the East was discussing under varying aspects the Divine and Christological
problem of the Word, the West, doubtless because of its more practical
genius, took up the moral question of sin in all its forms. The general
problem was the holiness of the Church; could the sinner be pardoned,
and remain in her bosom? In Africa the question especially concerned
the holiness of the hierarchy. The bishops of Numidia, who, in 312,
had refused to accept as valid the consecration of Cæcilian, Bishop
of Carthage, by a traditor, had inaugurated the schism and at the same
time proposed these grave questions: Do the hierarchical powers depend
upon the moral worthiness of the priest? How can the holiness of the
Church be compatible with the unworthiness of its ministers?
At the time of Augustine's
arrival in Hippo, the schism had attained immense proportions, having
become identified with political tendencies — perhaps with a national
movement against Roman domination. In any event, it is easy to discover
in it an undercurrent of anti-social revenge which the emperors had
to combat by strict laws. The strange sect known as "Soldiers of
Christ," and called by Catholics Circumcelliones (brigands, vagrants),
resembled the revolutionary sects of the Middle Ages in point of fanatic
destructiveness — a fact that must not be lost sight of, if the
severe legislation of the emperors is to be properly appreciated.
The history of Augustine's
struggles with the Donatists is also that of his change of opinion on
the employment of rigorous measures against the heretics; and the Church
in Africa, of whose councils he had been the very soul, followed him
in the change. This change of views is solemnly attested by the Bishop
of Hippo himself, especially in his Letters, xciii (in the year 408).
In the beginning, it was by conferences and a friendly controversy that
he sought to re-establish unity. He inspired various conciliatory measures
of the African councils, and sent ambassadors to the Donatists to invite
them to re-enter the Church, or at least to urge them to send deputies
to a conference (403). The Donatists met these advances at first with
silence, then with insults, and lastly with such violence that Possidius
Bishop of Calamet, Augustine's friend, escaped death only by flight,
the Bishop of Bagaïa was left covered with horrible wounds, and
the life of the Bishop of Hippo himself was several times attempted
(Letter lxxxviii, to Januarius, the Donatist bishop).
This madness of
the Circumcelliones required harsh repression, and Augustine, witnessing
the many conversions that resulted therefrom, thenceforth approved rigid
laws. However, this important restriction must be pointed out: that
St. Augustine never wished heresy to be punishable by death —
Vos rogamus ne occidatis (Letter c, to the Proconsul Donatus). But the
bishops still favoured a conference with the schismatics, and in 410
an edict issued by Honorius put an end to the refusal of the Donatists.
A solemn conference took place at Carthage, in June, 411, in presence
of 286 Catholic, and 279 Donatist bishops. The Donatist spokesmen were
Petilian of Constantine, Primian of Carthage, and Emeritus of Cæsarea;
the Catholic orators, Aurelius and Augustine. On the historic question
then at issue, the Bishop of Hippo proved the innocence of Cæcilian
and his consecrator Felix, and in the dogmatic debate he established
the Catholic thesis that the Church, as long as it is upon earth, can,
without losing its holiness, tolerate sinners within its pale for the
sake of converting them. In the name of the emperor the Proconsul Marcellinus
sanctioned the victory of the Catholics on all points. Little by little
Donatism died out, to disappear with the coming of the Vandals.
So amply and magnificently
did Augustine develop his theory on the Church that, according to Specht
"he deserves to be named the Doctor of the Church as well as the
Doctor of Grace"; and Möhler (Dogmatik, 351) is not afraid
to write: "For depth of feeling and power of conception nothing
written on the Church since St. Paul's time, is comparable to the works
of St. Augustine." He has corrected, perfected, and even excelled
the beautiful pages of St. Cyprian on the Divine institution of the
Church, its authority, its essential marks, and its mission in the economy
of grace and the administration of the sacraments.
The Protestant critics,
Dorner, Bindemann, Böhringer and especially Reuter, loudly proclaim,
and sometimes even exaggerate, this rôle of the Doctor of Hippo;
and while Harnack does not quite agree with them in every respect he
does not hesitate to say (History of Dogma, II, c. iii): "It is
one of the points upon which Augustine specially affirms and strengthens
the Catholic idea.... He was the first [!] to transform the authority
of the Church into a religious power, and to confer upon practical religion
the gift of a doctrine of the Church." He was not the first, for
Dorner acknowledges (Augustinus, 88) that Optatus of Mileve had expressed
the basis of the same doctrines. Augustine, however, deepened, systematized,
and completed the views of St. Cyprian and Optatus. But it is impossible
here to go into detail. (See Specht, Die Lehre von der Kirche nach dem
hl. Augustinus, Paderborn, l892.)
The close of the
struggle against the Donatists almost coincided with the beginnings
of a very grave theological dispute which not only was to demand Augustine's
unremitting attention up to the time of his death, but was to become
an eternal problem for individuals and for the Church. Farther on we
shall enlarge upon Augustine's system; here we need only indicate the
phases of the controversy. Africa, where Pelagius and his disciple Celestius
had sought refuge after the taking of Rome by Alaric, was the principal
centre of the first Pelagian disturbances; as early as 412 a council
held at Carthage condemned Pelagians for their attacks upon the doctrine
of original sin. Among other books directed against them by Augustine
was his famous "De naturâ et gratiâ." Thanks to
his activity the condemnation of these innovators, who had succeeded
in deceiving a synod convened at Diospolis in Palestine, was reiterated
by councils held later at Carthage and Mileve and confirmed by Pope
Innocent I (417).
A second period
of Pelagian intrigues developed at Rome, but Pope Zosimus, whom the
stratagems of Celestius had for a moment deluded, being enlightened
by Augustine, pronounced the solemn condemnation of these heretics in
418. Thenceforth the combat was conducted in writing against Julian
of Eclanum, who assumed the leadership of the party and violently attacked
Augustine. Towards 426 there entered the lists a school which afterwards
acquired the name of Semipelagian, the first members being monks of
Hadrumetum in Africa, who were followed by others from Marseilles, led
by Cassian, the celebrated abbot of Saint-Victor. Unable to admit the
absolute gratuitousness of predestination, they sought a middle course
between Augustine and Pelagius, and maintained that grace must be given
to those who merit it and denied to others; hence goodwill has the precedence,
it desires, it asks, and God rewards. Informed of their views by Prosper
of Aquitaine, the holy Doctor once more expounded, in "De Prædestinatione
Sanctorum," how even these first desires for salvation are due
to the grace of God, which therefore absolutely controls our predestination.
In 426 at the age
of seventy-two, wishing to spare his episcopal city the turmoil of an
election after his death, caused both clergy and people to acclaim the
choice of the deacon Heraclius as his auxiliary and successor, and transferred
to him the administration of externals. Augustine might then have enjoyed
some rest had Africa not been agitated by the undeserved disgrace and
the revolt of Count Boniface (427). The Goths, sent by the Empress Placidia
to oppose Boniface, and the Vandals, whom the latter summoned to his
assistance, were all Arians. Maximinus, an Arian bishop, entered Hippo
with the imperial troops.
The holy Doctor
defended the Faith at a public conference (428) and in various writings.
Being deeply grieved at the devastation of Africa, he laboured to effect
a reconciliation between Count Boniface and the empress. Peace was indeed
re stablished, but not with Genseric, the Vandal king. Boniface, vanquished,
sought refuge in Hippo, whither many bishops had already fled for protection
and this well fortified city was to suffer the horrors of an eighteen
months' siege. Endeavouring to control his anguish, Augustine continued
to refute Julian of Eclanum; but early in the siege he was stricken
with what he realized to be a fatal illness, and, after three months
of admirable patience and fervent prayer, departed from this land of
exile on 8 August, 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
Saint Augustine
of Hippo (354-430), bishop and Doctor of the Church is best known for
his Confessions (401), his autobiographical account of his conversion.
The term augustinianism evolved from his writings that had a profound
influence on the church.
Augustine was born
at Tagaste (now Nigeria) in North Africa on 13 November, 354. His father,
Patricius, while holding an official position in the city remained a
pagan until converting on his deathbed. His mother, Saint Monica, was
a devout Christian. She had had Augustine signed with the cross and
enrolled among the catechumens but unable to secure his baptism. Her
grief was great when young Augustine fell gravely ill and agreed to
be baptised only to withdraw his consent upon recovery, denouncing the
Christian faith.
At the encouragement
of Monica, his extensive religious education started in the schools
of Tagaste (an important part of the Roman Empire) and Madaura until
he was sixteen. He was off to Carthage next in 370, but soon fell to
the pleasures and excesses of the half pagan city’s theatres,
licentiousness and decadent socialising with fellow students. After
a time he confessed to Monica that he had been living in sin with a
woman with whom he had a son in 372, Adeodatus, (which means Gift of
God).
Still a student,
and with a newfound desire to focus yet again on exploration of his
faith, in 373 Augustine became a confirmed Manichaean, much against
his mother’s wishes. He was enticed by its promise of free philosophy
which attracted his intellectual interest in the natural sciences. It
did not however erase his moral turmoil of finding his faith. His intellect
having attained full maturity, he returned to Tagaste then Carthage
to teach rhetoric, being very popular among his students. Now in his
thirties, his spiritual journey led him away from Manichaeism after
nine years because of disagreement with its cosmology and a disenchanting
meeting with the celebrated Manichaean bishop, Faustus of Mileve.
Passing through
yet another period of spiritual struggle, Augustine went to Italy in
383, studying Neo-platonic philosophy. Enthralled by his kindness and
generous spirit, he became a pupil of Ambrose. At the age of thirty-three,
the epiphany and clarity of purpose which Augustine had sought for so
long finally came to him in Milan in 386 through a vast stream of tears
as he lay prostrate under a fig tree. He was baptised by Ambrose in
387 much to the eternal delight of his mother, “..nothing is far
from God.” The next event in his life leads to some of the most
profound and exquisite writings on love and grief; the death of his
mother Monica.
Surrounded by friends,
Augustine now returned to his native Tagaste where he devoted himself
to the rule in a quasi-monastic life to prayer and studying sacred letters
and to finding harmony between the philosophical questions that plagued
his mind and his faith in Christianity. He was ordained as priest in
391.
For the next five
years Augustine’s priestly life was fruitful, consisting of administration
of church business, tending to the poor, preaching and writing and acting
as judge for civil and ecclesiastical cases, always the defender of
truth and a compassionate shepherd of souls. At the age of forty-two
he then became coadjutor-bishop of Hippo. From 396 till his death in
439, he ruled the diocese alone. At that point the Roman Empire was
in disintegration, and at the time of his death the Vandals where at
the gates of Hippo. 28 August, 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his
age Augustine succumbed to a fatal illness. His relics were translated
from Sardinia to Pavia by Luitprand, King of the Lombards. Saint Augustine
is often depicted as one of the Four Latin Doctors in many paintings,
frescoes and stained glass throughout the world. “Unhappy is the
soul enslaved by the love of anything that is mortal.” Saint Augustine.
The cult of Augustine formed swiftly and was widespread. His feast is
28 August.